sacrifices
Chinese module
 
 
 
 

Tim Brocato

May 23, 2000

Virtual Exhibition Project
 
 
 
 

01 The Studded Caldron

This caldron is from period the Chinese considered the "good old days". This vessel denotes the period referred to as the Bronze period (1500-600bce) The Bronze period when men were virtuous and life was at its best. Archeologist unearthed hundreds of objects made of bronze during the Shang Dynasty. This dynasty was one of China's first dynasties. This dynasty ruled China from 1523 to 1050 BCE. During this period master bronze craftsmen, made many wonderful treasures including elegant figures, ceremonial vessels and furnishings that reflected the respect for nature and family. They classify these characteristics as part of the "golden age." (Schafer p21)

This caldron was used to present prepare meats to the ancestral spirits. It was placed out side the living quarters at the ceremonial dirt and offering were brought to it. The handles and legs are shaped like horned animals. The two creatures facing one another in the middle are birds. The detail of the figures and depictions of animals are beautiful and strong. These figures were used to protect the offering from any evil spirits.

The aristocracy of ancient Chinese included ancestor worship as a part of everyday life. They believed that when a man died his spirit passed on to the upper regions and had an effect of the fate of his descendants on earth. In order to invoke these spirits, their descendants brought them offerings of food and wine in vessels of richly decorated bronze. The vessels would be place in a special place outside the city and in times of need an offering would be sacrificed to the heavens. In times of need, special prayers accompany the offerings. Kings made frequent offerings to their god-like ancestors sometimes asking blessings for the community as a whole, such as a successful battle or an abundant harvest.

These practices stem from the relationship to man and his deity. He must perform a ritual (cost) in order to gain something in return. These cultural responsibilities provoke man to give of himself, hints a sacrifice, in order to gain a safe and prosperous future from bad or evil spirits. Thus, in giving of himself, the person would be humbled before their deity, to others and to himself.
 
 
 
 
 
 

02 Yueh Axe
 
 

Also of the Shang period, tanged axes are among the most characteristic weapons of the early Chinese cultures. Used as initially a battle-axe, Yueh became later ceremonial weapons used in human sacrifices. In honor of the ancestors, humans would sacrifice another human to gain a connection to the heavens.

The blades are large, often asymmetrical and tangs are frequently off-center. The tang was inserted in a slot in a wooden shaft from which the blades projected at right angles. The head of the axe was secured to its shaft by laced thongs rapped around the wooden shaft and through the holes. The large hole it the middle was possibly used for a suspension device. The upper part of the tang is decorated in intaglio with an animal shape inscribed in a square. There could have possibly been precious stones placed here. On the blade itself, there is a curled dragon in relief and cut out. (Lefebvre d' Argence p56)

So, Humans spent their lives making the sacrifice and preparing devices to implement the events. One has to wonder, what makes some one take so much care in making ritual devices? The simple answer is because it was important to him. What made it so important to him? The following question would be: What brings people to get proactive? What moves them?
 
 
 
 
 

03 Royal Shang Tombs
 
 

The Shang Dynasty was possibly the earliest known phase of civilization. The Shang people were mostly Neolithic, but the ruling class used bronze and the class divisions were enormous. The great city of Shang were grouped together just north of Anyang in Shantung. They consisted of three major building complexes all aligned with a north to south axes. The royal clan probably inhabited the northernmost complex consisting of six larger and nine smaller buildings. The humble houses of workers were clustered nearby. Evidence of their tyrannical power was found in the southern ceremonial altars. (Hay ,p 35)

" South of the altars were surrounded by burials of no fewer than 852 people, 15 horses and five chariots, ten oxen, eighteen sheep and thirty-five dogs. All of these lives had been undoubtedly been sacrificed in consecration of the buildings, which are now thought of as the royal temples." (Hay ,p 60)

Southwest of these temples were more complexes systematical in pattern, characteristic of the Shang. This complex was thought of as the ceremonial quarters. These dwellings were filled with oracle bones. The oracle bones refer time and time again to great sacrifices of war captives to the royal ancestors. To the north of these buildings were the scattered burials of slaughtered men. Undoubtedly the victimized men the oracle referred to. Just north of these burial grounds, lie the tombs of the great kings of the Shang. According to the oracles there were twelve kings of the Shang. The last king burn to death in his palace by the Chou in 1027. There were eleven tombs and one false tomb.

When a king died a great pit was marked and excavated. It was multi-leveled.

In the center a deep was dug. The pit was considered the gateway to the underworld. This gateway was protected by a sacrificial burial of an armed warrior. The Main wood chamber lay on top of his grave. The king's coffin lie in this chamber filled with royal treasure. Around the main chamber, scattered in all four corners, lie the king's sacrificed servants to accompany him into the after life. Skulls were found facing the center. More headless skeletons were found then there were heads to match. This would indicate that sacrifices were common practice. In addition, there were chariots and their charioteers lying on the ramps leading to the surface to the north and the south. They were said to be there to protect the king from robbers and evil spirits. (Hay ,p 80)

Therefore, many people were sacrificed to accompany the Shang Kings to there after life. This would go long with idea of ancestral worship. We need to honor the previous king so that he may help us in the future. What kind of society would you have if the old were respected and honored this much? What would happen if the old were not respected?
 
 
 
 

04 Kneeling Prisoner

Also part of the Shang dynasty, this stone figure depicts the power displayed by the Shang people. The Shang people economy was based on slavery. People that were captured in warfare were kept in captivity to be sacrificed to the ancestors. During the ceremony the victim would be beheaded with an axe decorated in the Shang style. A powerfully decorated axe with creature like the caldron we discussed earlier, Many times warriors were sent out on a specific mission to capture victims for sacrifice. The deity of war would be honored with the brutal murders. The people of Shang believed that with these sacrifices the war-god would bring them victory.(Dr. Cohen, CD-ROM "China")

The sculpture of this kneeling prisoner in simple in form, but powerful in message. We see the victim's head covered with a bag of some sort in preparation to have his head removed. The position they have chosen to depict the victim is extremely uncomfortable creating a sense of emotion. The victim's hands tied behind this back in a kneeling position provokes a feeling of hopelessness. One could almost imagine how one would feel in this position before your death. What a way to go.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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05 The Rain Spirit

The great deities were those of nature spirits who inhabited the nature featured of the earth. Hill-gods, earth-gods, river-gods, sky-gods, wind-gods, thunder-gods were created when the abstract power became inherent in them became so self-evident that man recognized it and gave them names. The deities ranged from the forest-imps to river maidens, whose good will was sought out by travels and villager. The king however worshiped a special god appropriately named " the gather of the clouds" or the rain spirit. The rain spirit would obviously be honored to insure an abundance of rain for the coming year and to insure good fishing. A girl bound in a richly clad outfit would be sacrificed to "the gather of clouds." During the ceremony, she would be dressed and lay in a raft of her bridal bed and cast out on the Yellow River never to be seen again. An ancient hymn would be sung during the event. (Schafer p.54)

You mount the white turtle, Oh!

your train is striped fish!

I rove with you, Oh!

by the aisles of the Ho.

In the chaos of the sweeping thaw, Oh!

down we shall go.

We join our hands, Oh!

as eastward we move.

They escort the lovely one, Oh!

to the south estuary.

Waves in steady surge, Oh!

come to welcome us -

Fish in swishing tumult, Oh!

are bridesmaids to me.

(Schafer p.58)

As one observes the rain god, we can see that it is richly decorated with patterns swirling around it's body. The figure is made of bronze. Notice the care that was taken to depict an almost flying dragon from the heavens. The symbol of the dragon has been a special motif for the Chinese people. It has always been the symbol of supernatural power. A symbol that the Chinese people believed should be honored and feared. Once again, the idea of giving up something in order to receive something back. This act seems to be fundamental to human existence.
 
 

06 Chou Chariot Burial

Following the fall of the Shang dynasty, the Chou (sometimes Zou) Dynasty was known as rough warriors of the hills. The Shang oracles specifically describe the Chou people as tributary people of the western region, who were causing trouble for the Shang. The Chou was a sophisticated bronze-using society from the west. They followed the Shang dynasty about 1027 BCE. Chou dynasty lasted about eight centuries. Speaking archaeologically, we know little about the Chou dynasty. There are hundreds of Chou cities, but very have been found because most of them are covered with modern day cities. " Presumably because power was increasingly measured in terms of huge mailed infantries, Grandiose chariot burials became striking features of Chou burial rights.

An excavation found around the Feng River, near Anyang, revealed the

Chariot Burials of the Chou. The Chou noble warriors were buried with their chariots and horses to be used in the after life. The more the chariots the more prestige the warrior. Only a few of the parts were made of bronze, while the rest was made of wood. The wood was completely destroyed over time, but it left a dark residue in the dirt. This helped the archaeologist identify the wood portions and leave them for astonishing completeness. (Hay p 68)
 

07 Tomb of the Emperor

Emperor Shihuangdi

Located midway between the Li Mountains and the Wei River, the massive tomb of Emperor Shihuangdi was created in 246 BCE. This tomb is one of the most impressive tombs found in the Chinese culture. This massive tomb discovered in 1974, span 2500 by 500 feet. Only a small amount of the tomb has been excavated since than and there are more exciting discoveries ahead.

The builders of this tomb intended it to be more impressive than the life hear on earth for Emperor Shihuangdi had while he was living. The tomb was a representation of life with mountains, rivers, oceans and the heavens. The treasure that was found in this tomb was say to be extravagant consisting of jade, pearls and gold. Moreover, there were over 7000 life-size ceramic warriors (armed and unarmed), chariots, horses (saddled and unsaddled) and archers. This army was buried with the emperor to protect him in the afterlife. Affixed at the entrance of the tomb were mechanical crossbows in order to slay any robbers of the tomb.

From an artist point of view, the ceramics are breath taking. These life-size depictions of possibly actual warriors that protected the king are magnificent. Every figure this a different face and torso. This reflected the diversity of the Chinese people at this time.

These findings follow the long history of ancestral worship. To honor the die in this manner was to ensure a prosperous lifetime. In following this tradition, this tomb was to mark the unification of China and the power of leadership of Shihuangdi. I would like to suggest that they accomplished their mission!
 
 

08 Confucius

To complete our tour of Chinese sacrifice we have to abandon the past and switch to other forms of sacrificial thought.
 
 

Confucius was born in the great Chou City about 551BCE. He believed in the spirits and had a sense of personal relationship to the heavens. He believed in the importance of sacrifice and stood for a dignified fulfillment of one's proper duties to the supernatural. Confucius was not particularly a religious man. He advised people to "keep aloof" from the spirits. The meaning is rather, however, that man should maintain the proper distance in relationship to the spirits, that is not fawn upon them for he sake of personal advantage but always act toward them in a manner prescribed by custom and courtesy. ( Finegan p349) " The essential duties of man living in a society of man" was of course the subject of deepest concern for Confucius.

He was dealing with the sacrifices that man need to impose on himself to become a virtuous and educated person. He complied a series of books to explain these ideas: The book of History, The Book of Etiquette, The Book of Odes and the Book of Change.

These are important in order to bring home the idea that the Chinese man was concerned about becoming a complete or better person. In the process, man had a fundamental duty to sacrifice this own thought or behaviors for the sake of tradition and historical experience. Another words, giving of himself to transcend benefits onto him. The ideas of sympathy and cooperation helped to control society and to ensure a sense of community.

09 Buddhism

Buddhism was introduced into China from India. What were some of the Buddhist teachings that imposed sacrifices on man? Did they follow tradition?

This belief stems from the understanding that life is a circle. Human beings are Born, developed and die only to be reborn again in a continuing circle. Buddhism is a religious form that helps individuals to get out of this circle. The idea of reaching enlightenment or understanding. The law of kama was a spiritual force that determines your place in the circle. "We will not remain in hell, nor will we remain in heaven, but rather we will expiate our bad karma through our suffering and gain good karma through our good actions. "(Cohen CD "Buddhism") Buddhist believe someone should follow the Four Noble Truths.

The Four Noble Truths and then must follow the Noble Eight-fold Path, which have been summarized as follows:

1. Human life is an existence of uncontrolled suffering, pain, and misery (dukkha).

2. Human suffering is caused by attachment for or desire for things that cannot satisfy the spirit (tanha).

3. Suffering can be ended and men set free by renouncing these attachments or desires, which are rooted in ignorance.

4. Man can free himself of desire by following the Noble Eight-fold Path.

The Eight-fold Path consisted of right views; right inclinations; right sayings; right conduct; right livelihood; right endeavor; right mindfulness; and right meditation. (Cohen CD "Buddhism")

Having said (or quoted) that, what kind sacrifices would someone who followed Buddhism? A person would have to sacrifice their desires through out their life in order to epees our good kama. Just like says in #1, Uncontrolled suffering, pain and misery is the proper life of a human. This becomes a life of sacrifices.

10 Taoism
 
 

"Tao" can be roughly translated into English as path, or the way. It "refers to a power which envelopes, surrounds and flows through all things, living and non-living. The Tao regulates natural processes and nourishes balance in the Universe. It embodies the harmony of opposites.

Taoism started as a combination of psychology and philosophy but evolved into a religion in 440 CE when it was adopted as a state religion. At that time Lao-Tse became popularly venerated as a deity. Taoism, along with Buddhism and Confucianism, became the three great religions of China. (religioustolerance.org)
 
 

Taoist Beliefs and Practices:

Tao is the first-cause of the universe. It is a force that flows through all life.The goal of everyone is to become one with the Tao.The concepts of a personified deity are foreign to Taoism, as is the concept of the creation of the universe. Thus, they do not pray as Christians do; there is no God to hear the prayers. They seek answers to life's problems through inner meditation and outer observation. Further, Yin is the breath that formed the earth. Yang is the breath that formed the heavens. They symbolize pairs of opposites that are seen throughout the universe, such as good and evil, light and dark, male and female. Intervention by human civilization upsets the balances of Yin and Yang. The symbol of Taoism represents Yin and Yang in balance. The virtues to be sought are compassion, moderation and humility. (religioustolerance.org)

What sacrifices are given up in this religious philosophy? Pride, gluttony, abundance, selfishness would all be given up. One would have to understand their relationships and monator their behavoir accordingly in a Taoism belief system. Is this social control or the path to heaven? Once again the giving up of one's self in order to receive enlightenment. Attaining enlightenment in order to get out of the circle of life.
 
 

Cohen, Dr. Kathleen Web of Art and Culture, (CD-ROM China).

Cotterell, Aurthur, The First Emperor of China, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York ,1981.

Finegan, Jack, The Archeology of World Religions, Princton University Press, Princton, New Jersey, 1952.

Gernet, Jacques, Daily Life in China, Standford Press, Stanford, California 1962

Hay, John. Ancient China. Henry Z. Walck, Inc., New York, 1973.

Lefebvre d' Argence, Rene Yvon, Ancient Chinese Bronzes, Diablo Press, 1966.

Schafer, Edward H. Ancient China. Time-life Books, Morristown, New Jersey, 1967.

http://www.religioustolerance.org/taoism.htm
 
 
 

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